Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that can lead to invalid or unsound conclusions. Recognizing fallacies is essential for critical thinking and effective communication. Let’s explore some common types of fallacies:

Types of Fallacies

1. Formal Fallacies

• Definition: Formal fallacies occur when the logical structure of an argument is flawed.
• Examples:
  • Affirming the Consequent: Invalid modus ponens. (e.g., “If it’s raining, the ground is wet. The ground is wet. Therefore, it’s raining.”)
  • Denying the Antecedent: Invalid modus tollens. (e.g., “If it’s raining, the ground is wet. It’s not raining. Therefore, the ground is not wet.”)
  • Fallacy of Composition: Assuming that what is true for parts is true for the whole. (e.g., “Each player is skilled. Therefore, the team is skilled.”)
  • Fallacy of Division: Assuming that what is true for the whole is true for parts. (e.g., “The team is skilled. Therefore, each player is skilled.”)

2. informal fallacies

• Definition: Informal fallacies involve errors related to content, context, or relevance.
• Examples:
  • Ad Hominem: Attacking the person instead of addressing their argument. (e.g., “You’re just saying that because you’re biased.”)
  • Straw Man: Misrepresenting an opponent’s argument to make it easier to refute. (e.g., “They want to ban all guns. We can’t let them take away our rights.”)
  • Appeal to Authority: Relying on an authority figure’s opinion as evidence. (e.g., “Dr. Smith said it, so it must be true.”)
  • False Dilemma: Presenting only two extreme options when more exist. (e.g., “Either you’re with us or against us.”)

Sources

List of Formal Logical Fallacies with examples (logical-fallacy.com)